P.41. X obtains Y’s acceptance to bill by fraud. X endorses it to Z who takes it as holder in due course. Z endorses the bill to F who knows of the fraud. Can F recover from X?
Sol: Yes. When a document reaches the hands of holder in due course it will be cured from all defects. Even an ordinaryholder deriving title from such holder in due course will get pure title. In the above case, X’s title was defective as it wasobtained by fraud. As Z is a holder in due course he gets pure or defective title and instrument will be cured of all defects. Now the instrument reaches the hands of F, who knowingly accepts the instrument. So F becomes holder. But he will also get pure title to the instrument and thus he can recover money from X.
P.42. J purchases some bills amounting to Rs.1,727 for a sum of Rs.200 only. He knows at the time of purchase that both drawer and the acceptor are in embarrassed circumstances but accepts them without enquiry and explanation. The billproved to have been obtained by fraud. J insists that he is a holder in due course and is therefore entitled to get the fullvalue of the instruments. Will he succeed?
Sol: No. According to Sec.9 of the Act - Holder in due course means any person who, for consideration, became thepossessor of a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque, if payable to the bearer, or the payee or endorsee thereof, ifpayable to the order, before the amount mentioned in it became payable, and without having sufficient cause to believethat any defect existed in the title of the person from whom he derived his title.”
In the given case there are clear grounds of suspicion and J has shown negligence in enquiring the validity of the instrument. So, he can’t be considered as holder in due course.
P.43. A sells a radio to M, a minor, who pays for it by cheque. A indorses the cheque to B who takes it in good faith andfor value. The cheque is dishonoured on presentation. Can B enforce payment of the cheque against A or M?
Sol: Payment can’t be enforced against M as he is a minor. But the instrument can be enforced against A.
P.44. A bill is dishonoured by non-acceptance. The bill is endorsed to ‘A’. ‘A’ endorses it to ‘B’. As between ‘A’ and ‘B’, the bill is subject to an agreement as to the discharge of ‘A’. The bill is afterwards endorsed to ‘C’, who takes it withnotice of dishonour. Decide, with reasons, whether ‘C’ is entitled to accept the bill in the capacity of a holder in duecourse.
Sol: Section 59 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 states that the holder of negotiable instrument, who has acquired it after dishonour, whether by non-acceptance or non-payment, with notice thereof, or after maturity, has only, as against the other parties, the rights thereon of his transferor.
Accordingly where a negotiable instrument has been dishonoured, any person who takes it with notice of dishonour, takes it subject to any defect of title attaching thereto at the time of dishonour. The transferee of a dishonoured instrument takes it subject to any defect of title attaching thereto at the time of dishonour. The transferee of a dishonoured instrument, who takes it with notice of dishonour, cannot acquire a better title to it than that which his transferor had.
In the problem given here, the transferor ‘A’ has acquired the bill which has already been dishonoured by non-acceptance. Mr. ‘A’ has indorsed it to B subject to the agreement as to the discharge of ‘A’. After endorsement ‘C’ takes it with notice of dishonour. ‘C’ who takes it with notice of dishonour cannot acquire a better title to it than that which his transferor ‘B’ had. ‘C’ takes the bill subject to the agreement between ‘A’ and ‘B’ and not a better title than this.
Further ‘C’ is also not a holder in due course under Section 9 of the Act because he has not acquired the instrument before it became payable. Although the holder in due course is not affected by the defect in the title of his transferor, but it is not so in the case of a holder who acquires the instrument after dishonour or after maturity. Hence ‘C’ is not entitled to accept the bill in the capacity of a holder in due course.
P.45. X by inducing Y obtains a Bill of Exchange from him fraudulently in his (X) favour. Later, he enters into acommercial deal and endorses the bill to Z towards consideration to him (Z) for the deal. Z takes the bill as a Holder-in-due-course. Z subsequently endorses the bill to X for value, as consideration to X for some other deal. On maturity thebill is dishonoured. X sues Y for the recovery of the money. With reference to the provisions of the NegotiableInstruments Act, decide whether X will succeed in the case?
Sol: The problem stated in the question is based on the provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act as contained inSection 53. The section provides : ‘Once a negotiable instrument passes through the hands of a holder in due course, itgets cleansed of its defects provided the holder was himself not a party to the fraud or illegality which affected theinstrument in some state of its journey. Thus any defect in the title of the transferor will not affect the rights of the holder in due course even if he had knowledge of the prior defect provided he is himself not a party to the fraud. (Section 53)
Thus applying the above provisions it is quite clear that X who originally induced Y in obtaining the bill of exchange in question fraudulently, cannot succeed in the case. The reason is obvious as X himself was a party to the fraud.
P.46. X, on attaining the age of majority, makes a fresh promissory note in consideration of a promissory note made byhim during his minority. Can a suit be maintained on the fresh promissory note?
Sol: A suit cannot be maintained on the fresh promissory note because the fresh promissory note is void in the absence of consideration. On the other hand a minor can’t ratify the transactions entered by him during his minority.
P.47. X sells a TV to M, a minor, who pays for it by his cheque. X endorses the cheque to Y who in turn endorses it infavour of Z. The cheque is dishonoured. Discuss the legal position.
Sol:
- Y can enforce payment of the cheque against X only and not against M because a minor cannot bind himself.
- Z can enforce payment of cheque against X and Y.
P.48. A draws a bill payable three months after sight on B. It passes through several hands before X becomes its holder.On presentation by X, B refuses to accept the bill. Discuss the right of X.
Sol: The effect of dishonour of a negotiable instrument, whether by non-acceptance or by non-payment, is to render thedrawer and all the endorsers liable to the holder. Thus, in the present case, since the bill is payable certain months (3months) after sight, acceptance is necessary for fixing its date of maturity. Non-acceptance by drawee (B) amounts to itsdishonour. X may, therefore, hold the endorsers as well as the drawer liable thereon. However, their liability can beinvoked only if the holder (X) gives them notice of such dishonour. The drawee (B) shall not be liable as he has notaccepted the bill. He can be held liable only in the event of non-payment of an accepted bill.
P.49. M draws a cheque in favour of N, a minor. N endorses it in favour of P. The cheque is dishonoured by the banker on the ground of insufficiency of funds? Discuss the rights of P.
Sol: Section 26 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1981 provides that a minor may draw, endorse, deliver and negotiateinstruments so as to bind all parties except himself. In the given problem, P shall have a right to proceed against M only. N, the minor, cannot be held liable.
P.50. A promissory note duly executed in favour of minor is void. (Correct/Incorrect)
Sol: As per section 26, a minor may draw, indorse, deliver and negotiate any negotiable instrument so as to bind allparties except himself. Hence, the instrument is valid. Minor can even indorse the instrument. He will not be bound bysuch indorsement, but other parties will be bound. Estoppel is not applicable against him. A minor can deny validity ofBill, even if he himself was drawer [As per section 120, a maker cannot deny validity of instrument as originally made.However, minor can deny the validity of the instrument].
P.51. X, a major, and M, a minor, executed a promissory note in favour of P. Examine with reference to the provisions ofthe Negotiable Instruments Act, the validity of the promissory note and whether it is binding on X and M.
Sol: Every person competent to contract has capacity to incur liability by making, drawing, accepting, endorsing,delivering and negotiating a promissory note, bill of exchange or cheque (Section 26, para 1, Negotiable InstrumentsAct, 1881).
As a minor’s agreement is void, he cannot bind himself by becoming a party to a negotiable instrument. But he may draw, endorse, deliver and negotiate such instruments so as to bind all parties except himself (Section 26, para 2).
In view of the provisions of Section 26 explained above, the promissory note executed by X and M is valid even though a minor is a party to it. M, being a minor is not liable; but his immunity from liability does not absolve the other joint promisor, namely X from liability [Sulochana v. Pandiyan Bank Ltd., AIR (1975) Mad. 70].
P.52. A bill is addressed to Herbert Morris who is partner in the firm “Perkin and Partner”. Herbert Morris accepts the bill in the firm’s name. Explain whether he will be personally liable on the bill or not.
Sol: Yes. He is the drawee and has given his acceptance to the instrument. On the other hand a partnership firm has noseparate legal identity and the liability of each partner is joint and several.
P.53. Shyam fraudulently encashed the cheque obtained from Kamal, crossed "Not negotiable" at a bank other than thedrawee bank. Is the drawee bank liable for conversion? (Not liable) Explain the liability of a drawee of cheque.
Sol: As per section 31, a drawee of cheque (i.e. banker) must make payment of cheque, as long as drawer has sufficientbalance in his account in the bank. If bank makes a default, it must compensate the drawer of cheque for any loss ordamage caused by such default. Thus, banker is liable only if there is 'default' on his part. The liability is towards drawerand not the holder. Banker is obliged only to compensate for loss or damage. Thus, exemplary damages cannot beawarded, even if banker is found to be negligent. In some cases, bank can refuse to honour a cheque and it will not beconsidered as default. 'Damage' is to the credit of drawer. Smaller the amount of cheque dishonoured, greater is damage to credit of drawer.
Section 85 specifically provides that banker is discharged if he makes payment in due course, if cheque payable to order is purported to be endorsed by or on behalf of payee. The protection is available only if Bank makes payment in due course. If payment is not in due course', Bank will be liable.
P.54. P, the holder of a bill of exchange, transfers it to Q without consideration. Q also transfers it to R withoutconsideration. R transfers it to X for consideration. X transfers it to Y without consideration. State whether Y can recoverthe amount of such instrument from X or P.
Sol: As per Section 43, a negotiable instrument made, drawn, accepted, endorsed or transferred without consideration orwhere consideration fails, creates no obligation for payment between the immediate parties. Of course, holder who hasobtained Bill for consideration can recover the consideration paid by him. Section 43 uses the words 'creates noobligation between the parties to the transaction'. Thus, the section applies only to immediate parties to transaction andnot other parties.
In the above case, Y cannot recover from X as there is no consideration and X is 'immediate party'. However, Y can sue P, Q or P. The reason is Y holder, who is deriving title from X who is a holder in due course. He has all rights what X has.
P.55. B signs the following endorsements on different negotiable instruments payable to bearer. Classify theendorsements with reasons as Blank Endorsement or Full Endorsement or Restrictive Endorsement or PartialEndorsement or Conditional Endorsement. Also, state whether the following Endorsements are valid or invalid.
- No other words except B's signature.
- Pay C.
- Pay C or order.
- Pay C only.
- Pay C or order for the account of B.
- Pay C or order Rs 500 out of Rs.1,000.
- Pay C or order being the unpaid residue of the bill.
- Pay C or order on safe receipt of goods.
- Pay C sans Recourse.
- Pay C sans Frais.
- Pay C, notice of dishonour dispensed with.
Case
|
Decision
|
Validity
|
Reason
|
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
|
Blank endorsement
Full endorsement
Full endorsement
Restrictive endorsement
Restrictive endorsement
Partial endorsement
Partial endorsement
Conditional endorsement
Conditional endorsement
Conditional endorsement
Conditional endorsement
|
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Invalid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
Valid
|
No other words have been used.
The use of word C.
The use of word ‘C or order’.
The use of word ‘only’.
The use of word ‘for the account of B’.
The endorsement purports to transfer only a part of the amount due on instrument.
The endorsement is for the unpaid balance.
Use of the words ‘on safe receipt of goods’.
The use of the words ‘Sans Recourse’.
The use of words the ‘Sans Faris’.
The use of words ‘Notice of dishonour dispensed with’.
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P.56. B signs the following endorsements on different negotiable instruments payable to bearer. State whether each of these alternative endorsement excludes the right of further negotiation by C or not:
- "Pay the contents to C only"
- "Pay C for my use"
- "Pay C or order for the account of B"
- "The within must be credited to C"
- "Pay C "
- "Pay C value in account with the State Bank "
- "Pay the contents to C, being part of the consideration in certain deed of assignment executed by the endorserand other".
Sol: Section 50 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 provides that the endorsement of a negotiable instrument followed by delivery, will transfer the property therein to the endorsee with the right of further negotiation. But the endorsement may, by express words, restrict or exclude such right, or may merely constitute the endorsee an agent to indorse the instrument, or to receive its contents for the endorser, or for some other specified person.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
|
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
|
The use of the word 'only' excludes the right of further negotiation.
The use of the words 'for my use', excludes the right of the further negotiation.
The use of words 'or order for the account of B' excludes right of further negotiation
The use of the words 'must be credited to C' excludes the right of further negotiation.
The endorsement does not contain words excluding the right or further negotiation.
The endorsement does not contain words excluding the right of further negotiation.
The use of the words 'others' gives the right of further negotiation.
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P.57. B accepts a bill drawn upon by A who endorses it to C who in turn endorses it to D, who in turn endorses it to A. Discuss the legal position of A.
Sol: This is clearly a case of Negotiation back. In case of negotiation back, if any endorser subsequently becomes holder of the instrument then all intermediary parties are discharged from their liability. This is to avoid circuitry of action. In the given case A can sue B only because B is a prior party to his original endorsement. A cannot sue C or D because it will lead to circuitry of action (i.e., if A is allowed to sue C or D, then C or D in turn can sue A because A is a prior party).
P.58. B accepts a bill drawn upon A who endorses it with words 'Sans Recourse’ to C, who in turn endorses it to D, who in turn endorses it to A. Discuss the legal position of A.
Sol: The holder of a bill may indorse it in such a way that he does not incur the liability of an endorser to the endorsee. He can do so by adding the words ‘sans recourse’ (without recourse) to the endorsement. Examples of such endorsement are ‘Pay A or order without recourse to me’ or ‘Pay A or order sans recourse’ or ‘Pay A or order at his own risk’.
If the instrument is dishonoured the subsequent holder or endorsee can’t claim the endorser for payment of the same. In the given case A can sue B, C or D because it will not lead to circuitry of action as A at the time of first endorsement, expressly excludes his liability by using the words' Sans recourse'.
P.59. P, the holder of a Bill of Exchange, transfers it to Q without consideration. Q also transfers it to R without consideration. R transfers it to X for consideration. X transfers it to Y without consideration. State giving reasons whether Y can recover the amount on such instrument from X or P.
Sol: In this case the bill of exchange has been transferred without consideration. Section 43 deals with rights of the parties in such a case. Section 43 lays down the following two rules regarding absence of consideration in negotiable instruments.
a. As between immediate parties: If a negotiable instrument is made, accepted endorsed or transferred without consideration or for a consideration which faces, it create no obligation of payment between the parties to the transaction. As between the immediate parties the defendant can plead absence of consideration and avoid liability.
b. As between remote parties: If a holder acquires a negotiable instrument for consideration, every subsequent holder desiring title from him with or without consideration may recover the amount due on such instrument from the transferor for consideration or from any other party thereto. This means that once the instrument gets into the hands of a holder in due course, he or any subsequent holder deriving title from him can recover the amount from any or all of the prior parties thereto.
Here X and Y are immediate parties and no consideration passed from Y to X. Hence first rule applies and Y has no rights against X.
X is the holder for value. Hence X and every subsequent holder deriving title from him may recover the amount due on such instrument from the transferor for consideration or any prior party thereto. The second rule applies. Hence Y can recover the amount from P.
P.60. B accepts a bill drawn upon A who endorses it to C without consideration, and C endorses it to D in good faith for valuable consideration and D, in turn endorses it to E as a gift. E endorses it to A. Discuss the legal position of A.
Sol: A can sue B because B is a prior party to his original endorsement. A can sue C because A was not liable to C as the endorsement was without consideration [Section 43]. A cannot sue D or E because it will lead to circuitry of action.
P.61. A bill is payable to X or order, X endorses the bill in blank. The bill is there after lost and comes into the hands of Y. Discuss the legal position in each of the following alternative cases:
- If Y receives the payment of the bill.
- If Y passes the bill by simple delivery to Z as a gift.
- If Y passes the bill after maturity by simple delivery to Z who takes the bill in good faith for valuable consideration.
- If Y passes the bill before maturity by simple delivery to Z who takes the bill in good faith for valuableconsideration.
Sol:
- The true owner can recover the amount from Y because Y had no title to bill.
- The true owner can recover the amount from Y and Z because Y and Z (not being holders in due course)had no title to bill.
- The true owner can recover the amount from Y and Z because Y and Z (not being holders in due course)had no title to bill.
- The true owner can recover the amount from Y and not from Z because Z being a holder in due course had a good title to bill.
P.62. A bill is payable to X or order. The bill is thereafter lost and comes into the hands of Y, who forges X's signature to affect an endorsement in blank. Discuss the legal position in each of the following alternative cases:
- If Y passes the bill by simple delivery to Z as a gift.
- If Y passes the delivery before maturity by simple delivery to Z who takes the bill in good faith for valuableconsideration.
Sol: In both the cases, the true owner can recover from Y and Z because under forged endorsement no person, whether he is a holder in due course or not, acquires any legal title to the bill.
P.63. A bill is payable to X or order, X endorses the bill in blank. It comes into the hands of Y who passes it on by simple delivery to Z, who forges Y's signature and transfers it to W. Can W sue any of the parties to the bill?
Sol: W can sue all the prior parties because he derives his title through genuine endorsement by X and not through forged endorsement by Z.
P.64. X obtains Y's acceptance to a bill by fraud. X endorses it to Z who takes it in good faith for valuable consideration. Z endorses the bill to F who knows of the fraud. Discuss the rights of X, Y and Z.
Sol:
- X cannot recover from Y because X is not a holder in due course.
- Z can recover from X or Y because Z is a holder in due course. [Section 58].
- F can recover from X, Y and Z because F derives the title from Z who is a holder in due course and at the sametime Z is not a party to fraud. [Section 53]
P.65. A draws a bill in favour of B upon X, B endorses it to C who, in turn endorses it to D who, in turn, endorses it to E who, in turn, endorse to F. On presentment for acceptance, X refuses to accept the bill. Who has a right of action against whom in each of the following alternative cases:
- If F gives no notice of dishonour.
- If F gives notice of dishonour only to E.
- If F gives notice of dishonour only to E and A.
Sol: First state the provisions relating to Notice of dishonour.
Case | Decision |
(a)
(b)
(c)
|
F has no right of action against any prior party because all prior parties who do not receive the notice of dishonour are discharged. [Section 93]
F has right of action against E only and not against A, B, C or D.
F has right of action against E and A only and not against B, C or D. [Section 93]
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