P.66. C, the payee of a bill, endorses it in blank and delivers it to D, who specially endorses it to E or order. E transfers the bill to F without endorsement. Discuss the rights of F in case of dishonour of the bill.
Sol: In the given problem, C has endorsed the bill to D in blank. In other words, just placed his signature on the back, leaving the name of endorsee D to be recorded. D endorses it specially to E. Thus, D would have written 'Pay E or order' above the signature of C. Thus, D's name or signature does not figure anywhere. E then transfers to F without endorsement. On dishonour, therefore, F can hold the immediate transferor E liable who shall be entitled to hold C, who in turn can make the drawer liable. F, if he is a holder in due course, can hold C and the drawer liable directly also.
P.67. A is the payee and holder of a negotiable instrument. Excluding personal liability by an endorsement 'without recourse' he transfers the instrument to B, indorses it to C, who indorses it to A. State who is liable to A.
Sol: Section 52 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 specifically provides that where an endorser excludes his liability and afterwards becomes the holder of the instrument, all intermediate endorsers are liable to holder. Thus, in the given case, C as well as B shall be liable to A.
P.68. A is a payee holder of a bill of exchange. He endorses it in blank and delivers, it to B. B endorses it in full to C or order. C without endorsement transfers the bill to D. State giving reasons whether D as bearer of the bill of exchange is entitled to recover the payment from A or B or C.
Sol: Under Section 55 of the Negotiable Instrument Act, if an instrument after having been endorsed in blank is endorsed in full, the endorsee in full does not incur the liability of an endorser, so the amount of it cannot be claimed from him. It means if an endorsement in blank is followed by an endorsement in full, the instrument still remains payable to bear and negotiable by delivery as against all parties prior to the endorse in full, though the endorser in full is only liable to a holder who made title directly through his endorsement and the person deriving title through such holder. In the ensuing case, in view of section 55, D as the bearer of the instrument can receive payment of sue the drawer, acceptor, or A who endorsed the bill in blank; but he cannot sue B or C. But there is an exception to the above rule contained in Section 55. The person to whom it has been endorsed in full, or any one who derives little through him, can claim the amount from the endorser in full.
P.69. A cheque is drawn payable to 'B or order' and delivered to B in payment of a debt. B's agent without having any authority to endorse, endorses the cheque 'Per Pro' for B and obtains payment of the money and misappropriates it. Is the banker discharged by payment in due course?
Sol: Section 27 lays down that every person capable of binding himself or of being bound may so bind by himself or be bound by a duly authorised agent acting in his name.
But, it is essential that at the time of putting his signature to the instrument, the agent must have express or implied authority. A signature by procuration (per pro) operates as a notice that the agent has only a limited authority to sign and that the principal will only be bound if the agent is acting within the actual limits of his authority. The utmost care and caution is required in dealing with person who profess to act as agent on behalf of the principal. A prudent man will always call for proof that the alleged authority has been given. Hence, a person who takes or deals with bill or cheque signed per pro must take or deal with the greatest caution, and should satisfy himself that the authority really exists [Attwood vs. Munnings]. If an agent endorses without authority a bill (or cheque) on behalf of his principal, the endorsement conveys no title to the person taking it (endorsee) [The Bank of Bengal vs. Fagan].
Accordingly, in the given case the paying bank will not be entitled to any protection under Section 85 under which a banker is protected against forgery of endorsements if the payment is made in due course. In fact, the payment cannot be considered as a payment in due course.
P.70. A is holder of a Bill indorsed by B in blank. A writes over B's signature the words 'Pay to X or order'. On the dishonour of the Bill, X sues A as the endorser to recover the amount of Bill. Can A succeed?
Sol: As per section 49, the holder of a negotiable instrument indorsed in blank may simply write above the endorser's signature a direction to pay to any other person as endorsee. He will do so without signing his own name. This will convert the endorsement in blank into an endorsement in full. In such a case, the holder does not become endorser and does not incur the liability of an endorser. In this case, A has only written the words 'Pay X or order'. He has not signed the instrument. Hence, he is not endorser of Bill and is not liable.
P.71. A endorsed a bill to B, B to C, C to D and D to E. Lastly E endorsed it to A. Can A hold E liable if the bill is dishonoured.
Sol: As a general rule, each party to the instrument is liable to prior parties. e.g., A draws a Bill on B making it payable to C. Once the Bill is accepted by B, he becomes primarily liable. If C endorses to D, D to E and E to F, then 'D' is liable to E and F while previous parties A, Band C are liable to D. All parties i.e. A to E are liable to F, but F is liable to no one. Now, let us assume that F endorses the Bill to D. Thus, D who was an endorsee becomes a holder. This is termed as 'Negotiation Bank'. In such a case, D cannot hold prior endorsee i.e. E and F liable. The reason is that even if he holds so, the liability will come back to him, as E and F will in turn hold D liable as he was prior endorsee. Thus, liability will move in an endless circle. Hence, if a document is negotiated back, the holder cannot sue intermediate parties. This is an exception to the rule that a holder can sue all parties prior to the transaction. Of course, D can sue A, B and C.
However, if D had made first endorsement as a conditional endorsement, 'san recourse' (i.e. without liability), he can sue E and F and the liability will not come back to him as circle cannot be completed due to the conditional endorsement of 'san recourse’.
P.72. A bill of exchange is drawn payable to X or order. X endorses it to Y, Y to Z, Z to A, A to B and B to X. State with reasons whether X can recover the amount of the bill from Y, Z, A and B, if he has originally endorsed the bill to Y by adding the words 'Sans Recourse'.
Sol: The endorser of a negotiable instrument may, by express words in the endorsement, exclude his own liability thereon. If the endorser writes the words 'sans recourse' or' sans recourse', he excludes his liability on the instrument. Where an endorser so excludes his liability and afterwards becomes the holder of the instrument, all intermediate endorsers are liable to him [Section 52]. If endorser excludes his liability, further negotiation is not prohibited. It only excludes liability of endorser.
In the above case, normally, X cannot hold Y, Z, A and B, as if X holds them responsible, the responsibility will come back to him by circuitry of action. However, in this case, X had endorsed 'without recourse'. Hence, Y, Z, A and B cannot hold X liable and hence circle does not get complete. On the other hand, X is holder after Y, Z, A and B and can hold them liable, as provided in Section 52.
P.73. A is a payee of bill of exchange. He endorses it in blank and delivers it to B. B endorses it in full to C or order. C without endorsement transfers the bill to D. State giving reasons whether D as bearer of the bill of exchange is entitled to recover the payment from A or B or C.
Sol: As per explanation (ii) to section 13, a bearer instrument is one
(a) which is expressed to be payable to bearer or
(b) on which the only or last endorsement is in blank.
In the given case, the original instrument was payable to a particular person (A) and not to bearer. The instrument was converted into blank instrument by A. The blank instrument was converted into full by B and delivered to C. Thus, instrument is no more a blank instrument. Hence, C cannot transfer the instrument to another without endorsement. Thus, D has no title to the instrument and cannot sue anyone. D would get title only if C signs i.e. endorses in blank and delivers instrument to D.
However, if originally instrument was drawn as payable to bearer, it continues to be payable to bearer, irrespective of any subsequent endorsement. In that case, even if B has endorsed in full, the instrument is still payable to bearer. Hence, even if C had not made any endorsement, D will have title to instrument and can recover the amount from B or C.
P.74. A is the holder of a bill of exchange made payable to the order of 'B'. The bill of exchange contains the following endorsements in the blank. First endorsement 'B', second endorsement 'C', third endorsement 'D', fourth endorsement 'E'. - - 'A' strikes out, without E's consent, the endorsement by 'C' and 'D'. Decide with reasons whether 'A' is entitled to recover anything from 'E'.
Sol: Every endorser is entitled to recover amount of Bill from prior endorsers. Hence, Section 40 provides that if a holder of a negotiable instrument destroys or impairs the endorser's remedy against a prior party (without the consent of the endorser), the endorser is discharged from liability to the holder as if the instrument had been paid at maturity.
In the above case, A is a holder who has cancelled endorsement of C and D without consent of E. This has destroyed remedy which E had against C and D. Hence, E gets discharged from his liability towards A, as provided in section 40.
P.75. X is a holder of a bill of exchange made payable to the order of Y which contains the following endorsements in blank:
First endorsement : “Y”
Second endorsement : “G.T.Krishan”
Third endorsement : “T.P.Mathew”
Fourth endorsement : “K.L.Abdul.”
On dishonour, the holder X puts in suit against K.L. Abdul and strikes out without K.L. Abdul’s consent the endorsements of G.T.Krishan and T.P. Mathew. Is X entitled to recover anything from K.L.Abdul. State reasons for your answer.
Sol: No. This is so because X has destroyed Abdul’s remedy against prior parties by deleting the endorsements of G.T.Krishnan and T.P.Mathew.
P.76. A draws a bill on B. B accepts the bill without any consideration. The bill is transferred to C without consideration. C transferred it to D for value, Decide –
(i) Whether D can sue the prior parties of the bill, and
(ii) Whether the prior parties other than D have any right of action intense?
Give your answer in reference to the Provisions of Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881.
Sol: Section 43 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 provides that a negotiable instrument made, drawn, accepted, indorsed or transferred without consideration, or for a consideration which fails, creates no obligation of payment between the parties to the transaction. But if any such party has transferred the instrument with or without endorsement to a holder for consideration, such holder, and every subsequent holder deriving title from him, may recover the amount due on such instrument from the transferor for consideration or any prior party thereto.
(i) In the problem, as asked in the question, A has drawn a bill on B and B accepted the bill without consideration and transferred it to C without consideration. Later on in the next transfer by C to D is for value. According to provisions of the aforesaid section 43, the bill ultimately has been transferred to D with consideration. Therefore, D can sue any of the parties i.e. A, B or C, as D arrived a good title on it being taken with consideration.
(ii) As regards to the second part of the problem, the prior parties before D i.e., A, B and C have no right of action inter se because first part of Section 43 has clearly lays down that a negotiable instrument, made, drawn, accepted, indorsed or transferred without consideration, or for a consideration which fails, creates no obligation of payment between the parties to the transaction prior to the parties who receive it on consideration.
P.77. State whether the following alterations are material or not:
- A bill dated 1st April 1999 is changed to a bill dated 1st May 1999.
- A bill payable 3 months after date is changed to a bill payable 3 months after sight.
- A bill payable at Delhi is changed to bill payable at Bombay.
- A bill for Rs.1,000 is changed into a bill for Rs.2,000.
- A bill is accepted payable at Dena Bank is changed to a bill accepted payable at Canara Bank.
- A bill payable to P is changed into a bill payable to P and Q.
- A bill was endorsed in blank and handed over to Y, who endorsed as 'Pay to Z or order’.
- The holder of a bill inserts the words 'or order'.
- A bill was dated 1989 instead of 1999 & subsequently the agent of the drawer corrected the mistake.
- A cheque payable to bearer was converted into a cheque payable to order.
- Crossing a cheque.
Sol: First write the provisions related to ‘Material Alteration’
Cases (a) to (g): Material alterations.
Cases (h) to (j): Non-material alterations.
Case (k): Material alteration authorised by the Act without any authentication.
P.78. X draws a cheque for Rs 2,000 and Y, a holder without the consent of X alters the figure of Rs 2,000 to Rs 20,000 and makes the instrument look like a cheque drawn for Rs 20,000. The banker pays the cheque in due course. Discuss the legal position of the banker.
Sol: First write the provisions related to ‘Protection given to paying banker’
The banker is discharged from all liabilities since the banker made the payment in due course and alteration was not apparent. The banker also gets protection under the act if he pays the cheque with due diligence and without any negligence. knowledge of yours.
P.79. A promissory note was made without mentioning any time for payment. The holder added the words 'on demand' on the face of the instrument. State whether it amounted to material alteration and explain the effect of such alteration.
Sol: In the given problem, addition of the words 'on demand' does not amount to material alteration since according to Section 19 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, a promissory note, in which no time for payment is specified, is payable on demand. Thus, since the instrument even without use of the words 'on demand', was nevertheless payable on demand; the addition of these words does not amount to change of its tenor and hence it is not material alteration. The expression 'material alteration' is described to mean alteration which tends to speak a language different from the one intended originally.
Effect of material alteration: Section 87 of the Negotiable Instruments Act states that any material alteration of a negotiable instrument renders the same void as against anyone who is party thereto at the time of making such alteration and does not consent thereto, unless it was made in order to carry out the common intention of the original parties. Further, any such alteration, if made by endorsee, discharges his endorser from all liability to him in respect of the consideration thereof.
P.80. Do the following alterations of a negotiable instrument render the instrument void?
- The holder of a bill alters the date of the instrument to accelerate or postpone the time of payment.
- The drawer of a negotiable instrument draws a bill but forgets to write the words 'or order'. Subsequently, the holder of the instrument inserts these words.
- A bill payable three months after date is altered into a bill payable three months after sight.
- A bill was dated 1992 instead of 1993 and' subsequently the agent of the drawer corrected the mistake.
- A bill is accepted payable at the Union Bank, and the holder, without the consent of the acceptor, scores out the name of the Union Bank and inserts that of the Syndicate Bank.
Sol: (a) Yes. (b) No. (c) Yes. (d) No. (e) Yes.
According to Section 87 of the N.I. Act, 1881 any material alteration of a Negotiable Instrument renders the same void as against anyone who is party there to at the time of making such alteration and does not consent thereto, unless it was made in order to carry out the common intention of the original parties. If any such alteration is made by an endorsee, the endorser his discharged from all liability to him in respect of the consideration thereof. The alteration must be so material that it alters the character of the instrument, to a great extent. Generally, alteration of the date, amount payable, time, place of payment is regarded as material alteration.
P.81. When is an alteration made in negotiable instrument called ‘Material Alteration’? State with reasons whether there is any ‘Material Alteration’ in the following cases:
(i) the holder of a bill of exchange alters the date of the instrument to accelerate or prepone the time of payment;
(ii) the drawer of a bill exchange forgets to write the words, ‘or order’ on the bill. Subsequently, the holder of the bill of exchange inserts these words on the bill.
Sol: After considering the given cases with respect to material alteration, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(i) Yes, there is material alteration, since alteration in the date and time of payment is treated as material alteration in the eye of law. (A. Subba Reddy vs. N. Ramana Reddy, AIR, 1966 A.P. 267).
(ii) No, there is no material alteration. Addition of he words ‘or order’ do not in any way affect the validity of the instrument. (Eyron vs. Thompson (1839), 11 A. & E. 31)
P.82. State with reasons whether there is any 'material alteration' in following cases and whether to invalidates the instrument – knowledge of yours.
- D, in possession of an inchoate instrument where the amount has not been written on the instrument, writes himself the amount
- K, in possession of an uncrossed cheque received from A writes 'Payee's Account Only' on the face of instrument.
Sol:
- Such filling in is permitted u/s 20 of the Act and hence is not 'material alteration'
- Crossing of uncrossed cheque or converting general crossing to special crossing is permitted u/s 125. This is notmaterial alteration. Thus, in both cases, instrument is valid and enforceable.
P.83. L had two promissory notes of Rs.500 each issued by S Banking Corporation. He placed them in the pocket of his coat and having forgotten, he washed, dried and starched the coat. He remembered of the notes while he was ironing his coat. He searched for them in the pocket of his coat and could find them in spoiled condition. The identity of the notes was rested to a certain extent except its numbers. Can he recover the money from the bank.
Sol: Yes. The principle of material alteration does not apply to mere accidents. L can prove his right of receiving payment through any other evidence and obtain payment on it.
P.84. A promissory note did not contain the rate of interest in the space provided for the purpose. The creditor puts in the rate. The debtor contends that it is a material alteration and, therefore, he is not liable to pay. Decide.
Sol: It amounts to material alteration. So, Debtor’s contention is correct.
P.85. State with reasons whether the following shall amount to material alteration and invalidate the instrument.
- D, in possession of an inchoate instrument where the amount has not been written on the instrument, writes himself the amount.
- K, in possession of an uncrossed cheque received from A, write “Payee’s A/C only” on the face of the instrument.
Sol:
- No material alteration as sec. 20 permits and
- No material alteration as section 125 permits it.
P.86. A draws a cheque in favour of B. A's clerk forges B's endorsement and negotiates the cheque to C, who takes it in good faith and for value. C receives payment on the cheque. Discuss the rights of A and C.
Sol: In the given problem, issues involved are:
Can A claim the reimbursement of the payment from his bank for the payment having been made to a person under forged endorsement?
C having received the payment, does he enjoy the right of retaining the amount?
Regarding the first issue i.e., right of A, it may be stated that a paying banker is not expected to know the signature of the payee or endorsers. Therefore, if it makes the payment in due course and without negligence, Section 85 of the Negotiable Instruments Act offers the bank protection against any action for wrongful payment. Thus, A may have no claim unless negligence or connivance of the banker's staff can be established.
Regarding C's right, since it is stated that he took the cheque in good faith and for value, he is a holder in due course and he can get better title than that of transferor of the instrument. Therefore, he will have lawful right to retain the amount.
P.87. H is the holder in due course of a bill of which A is the acceptor. 0, the drawer of the bill is fictitious. Can A escape from his liability to H?
Sol: Section 42 of the Negotiable Instruments Act provides that, where a bill of exchange is drawn by a fictitious person and is payable to his order, the acceptor cannot be relieved from his liability to the holder in due course. Thus, H being holder in due course, A cannot escape liability. However, H should establish that the bill was endorsed by the same hand as drawer's signature.
P.88. A cheque is payable to M or order. It is stolen and the thief forges M's signature and presents it to the banker who makes the payment in due course. Can M recover the amount from the banker?
Sol: M being the payee need not be a customer of the paying bank. The paying bank, therefore, is not expected to know M's signature. Section 85 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, therefore, grants protection to paying bankers in case of forged endorsements. The section provides that if a cheque payable to order purports to be indorsed by or on behalf of the payee, and the banker on whom it is drawn pays it in due course, the banker is discharged, even though the endorsement of the payee might turn out to be a forgery. However, to claim protection, the banker has to prove that the payment was a payment in due course.
P.89. B obtains A's acceptance to a bill by fraud. B indorses it to C who takes it as a holder in due course. C endorses the bill to D who knows the fraud. Can D recover from A?
Sol: Yes; D can recover the amount from A as he derived the title from C who is a holder in due course. Moreover, D is not a party to the fraud. Once, the title has been cleansed of the defect, notwithstanding notice of the fraud, D shall get a good title. According to Section 53 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 any defect in the title of the transferor will not affect the rights of the holder in due course even if he had knowledge of the previous defect provided he himself is not a party to the fraud.
P.90. Mr. Clever obtains fraudulently from J a cheque crossed 'Not Negotiable'. He later transfers the cheque to D, who gets the cheque encashed from ABC Bank, which is not the Drawee Bank. J, on coming to know about the fraudulent act of Clever, sues ABC Bank for the recovery of money. Examine with reference to the relevant provisions of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, whether J will be successful in his claim. Would your answer be still the same in case Clever does not transfer the cheque and get the cheque encashed from ABC Bank himself?
Sol: According to Section 130 of the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 a person taking cheque crossed generally or specially bearing in the words 'Not Negotiable' can’t get a better title than that of transferor. Thus, if the title of the transferor is defective, the title of the transferee will also be defective.
Basing on above provisions, it can be concluded that if the holder has a good title, he can still transfer it with a good title, but if the transferor has a defective title, the transferee is affected by such defects, and he cannot claim the right of a holder in due course by proving that he purchased the instrument in good faith and for value.
In the given case Mr. Clever had obtained the cheque fraudulently. As his title is defective, he could not give good title to D and ABC Bank would be liable for the amount of the cheque for encashment. (Great Western Railway Co. vs. London and County Banking Co.)
The answer in the second case would not change and shall remain the same for the reasons given above. Thus in both cases, J will be successful in his claim from ABC Bank.
No comments:
Post a Comment